The Legend of The Richest Man In The World

Musa Keita I of Mali

Mansa Musa, fourteenth century emperor of the Mali Empire, is the medieval African ruler most known to the world outside Africa.  His elaborate pilgrimage to the Muslim holy city of Mecca in 1324 introduced him to rulers in the Middle East and in Europe.  His leadership of Mali, a state which stretched across two thousand miles from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake Chad and which included all or parts of the modern nations of Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger,Nigeria, and Chad, ensured decades of peace and prosperity in Western Africa. 

In 1312 Musa became emperor following the death of his predecessor, Abu-Bakr II.  When he was crowned, he was given the name Mansa meaning king.  Mansa Musa was knowledgeable in Arabic and was described as a Muslim traditionalist.  He became the first Muslim ruler in West Africa to make the nearly four thousand mile journey to Mecca.  Preparing for the expedition took years and involved the work of artisans in numerous towns and cities across Mali.  In 1324 Musa began his pilgrimage with a entourage of thousands of escorts.  He also brought considerable amounts of gold, some of which was distributed along the journey. 

Accompanied by thousands of richly dressed servants and supporters Musa made generous donations to the poor and to charitable organizations as well as the rulers of the lands his entourage crossed. On his stop in Cairo, Egypt, the Emperor gave out so much gold that he generated a brief decline in its value. Cairo’s gold market recovered over a decade later.  

Upon his return from Mecca, Mansa Musa brought Arab scholars, government bureaucrats, and architects.  Among those who returned with him was the architect Ishaq El Teudjin who introduced advanced building techniques to Mali.  He designed numerous buildings for the Emperor including a new palace named Madagou, the mosque at Gao, the second largest city in Mali, and the still-standing great mosque at Timbuktu, the largest city in the empire. That mosque was named the Djinguereber. El Teudjin’s most famous design was the Emperor’s chamber at the Malian capital of Niani.

Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage boosted Islamic education in Mali by adding mosques, libraries, and universities. The awareness of Musa by other Islamic leaders brought increased commerce and scholars, poets, and artisans, making Timbuktu one of the leading cities in the Islamic world during the time when the most advanced nations from Spain to central India were Muslim.  Timbuktu was clearly the center of Islamic Sub-Saharan Africa.

Musa’s pilgrimage to Mecca brought Mali to the attention of Europe.  For the next two centuries Italian, German, and Spanish cartographers produced maps of the world which showed Mali and which often referenced Mansa Musa.  The first of these maps appeared in Italy in 1339 with Mansa Musa’s name and likeness. 

Mansa Musa died in 1337 after a twenty-five year reign.  He was succeeded by his son, Maghan I.

- See more at: http://www.blackpast.org/gah/musa-mansa-1280-1337#sthash.XAb4yN4Q.dpuf

Bamum Culture In Cameroon Part 1:1

African Art Bamoun Tribe

Art objects were symbols of position in the hierarchy; the number of art pieces, the materials from which they were made, and their iconography changed progressively as one descended or ascended the social ladder.

Competition among sculptors was often great, for the artist's "office" was not hereditary. Sculpture's goal was to commemorate and celebrate the royal ancestors of the present fon. In the fon's palace, next to the ancestral figures and the masks, one would also find headdresses, beaded thrones, bracelets, necklaces, pipes, leopard skins, elephant tusks, swords, commanders' sticks, fans, dishware, horns, and terracotta bowls.

A large number of prestigious items of paraphernalia were produced within the Grassland area, including large house-posts, door and window frames carved with human and animal figures, thrones, stools and tables decorated with small heads and figures, large bowls, carved horns for royal feasts, anthropomorphic terracotta and bronze pipes. Musical instruments such as anthropomorphic and zoomorphic drums, as well as metal gongs, were played during royal and state ceremonies.

Bamum social life was oriented toward the conquest of surrounding chieftaincies, and forays were made into neighboring lands: from this stems a warrior mythology and an abundance of material symbols of strength. The Bamum produced large and smaller sized figures encrusted with beads and cowries.

The northern part of Cameroon has been Islamized and has no sculpture; on the other hand, the savannas of the west, the Grassland, are composed of three ethnic groups with ancestors in common.

There are the one million Bamileke spread over the southwestern plateaus, in communities that have from 50,000 to 100,000 people; the 500,000 Bamenda-Tikar in the north; and. finally, the Bamum in the northwest, with a population of 80,000. The Bamileke resisting slave raids with suicide or rebellion, contributed very little to the Black population of the New World.

The artistic production of the people living in the Grassland of Cameroon is closely associated with royal and societal ceremonies. To assert his power, the king uses large figurines, thrones and prestige paraphernalia.

The Grassland was divided into ninety kingdoms governed by a king, the Fon, supported by non-secret societies. In the past, the Fon was endowed with supernatural powers that allowed him to change into an animal - an elephant, leopard, or buffalo. He ensured the protection of his people and guaranteed the fertility of the fields and the fecundity of the women.

The fon was responsible for rituals of planting and harvesting, for the annual festival of the dry season, for the opening of the collective royal hunt, and for expeditions of war. His predecessor, who chose him from among his direct heirs, excluding the eldest, appointed the fon.

Culture & Traditions In Cameroon Part 1

Cameroon has a rich and diverse culture made up of a mix of about 250 indigenous populations and just as many languages and customs. The country is nicknamed "Little Africa" as geographically, Cameroon consists of coastline, mountains, grass plains, forest, rainforest and desert, all of the geographical regions in Africa in one country. This also contributes to its cultural diversity as ways of life and traditional food dishes and traditions very from geographical region to geographical region.

The name of the country derives from the term used for the Wouri River by Portuguese explorers. Reaching the Cameroon coast near the modern port city of Douala around 1472, those explorers named the river Rio dos Camaroes ("River of Prawns") after the variety of crayfish they found there. This name later was applied to the coastal area between Mount Cameroon and Rio Muni.

Cameroon has distinct regional cultural, religious, and political traditions as well as ethnic variety. The division of the country into British- and French-ruled League of Nations mandates after World War I created Anglophone and Francophone regions. The English-speaking region consists of the Southwest and Northwest provinces, where Pidgin English (Wes Cos) is the lingua franca and English is taught in school. The educational system and legal practices derive from those of England. The French-speaking region consists of the remaining eight provinces, where French is the lingua franca, the French school system is used, and the legal system is based on the statutory law of continental Europe. This region is dominant in numbers and power. Tension between the two regions increased after the introduction of a multiparty political system in the 1990s.

The English-speaking region is divided into two cultural regions. The Grassfields peoples of the Northwest Province consist of nearly one hundred chiefdoms each ruled by a divine king (fon) . Most of these chiefdoms have patrilineal or dual descent kinship systems, although some groups, such as the Kom, are matrilineal. Polygyny and fertility are important cultural values, although this varies by wealth and education. The social organization and culture of the Grassfielders are closely related to those of the French-speaking Bamiléké peoples of the Western province. Like the Bamiléké, Grassfielders often are in opposition to the central government.

The peoples of the Southwest province had less hierarchical systems of governance and social organization. The British appointed warrant chiefs to aid their colonial rule, and in many instances the population rallied behind those chiefs in the postcolonial period. The peoples of the Southwest province include the Bakweri, who live along the slopes of Mount Cameroon. The Bakweri practice rites of healing and initiation in associations of spirit mediums that distinguish between male and female roles and between village and bush.

In the French-speaking area, the largely Muslim north is culturally distinct from the largely Christian and animist south. The northern area includes three provinces: Adamoua, North, and Extreme North. Since the jihad led by an Islamic cleric in 1804, the northern region has been culturally dominated by the Fulani. Urban Fulani are renowned as clerics in the Sunni branch of Islam. Most Fulani are cattle herders. An important subgroup are the Bororo'en, noted for the size of their cattle herds. With their Hausa colleagues, they engage in long-distance trade involving cattle. Other northern ethnic groups include the Mandara, Kokoto, and Arab Choa. Major crops include cotton and millet.

Most of the southern peoples are Christian or engage in traditional, animist religious practices. The Center, South, and East provinces are characterized by dense tropical rain forest. The Center and South are culturally dominated by the Beti peoples, which include the Ewondo, Eton, and Bulu, and are linguistically and culturally related to the Fang of Gabon. They are patrilineal, grow root crops and peanuts for their own consumption, and grow cocoa as a cash crop. The Ewondo were early converts to Catholicism. The current president is Bulu, and many prominent authors are Beti. Peoples in the East include the Maka and Gbaya, both with relatively egalitarian forms of social organization in Cameroon.

which reciprocity is a key value. Forestry and tobacco farming are important sources of income. The East province is also home to the Baka, a tropical forest forager (pygmy) group of about thirty thousand to forty thousand living in small camps that exchange forest products with nearby farmers. The Littoral province is in the coastal rain forest region in the southwest. It includes the largest city, the port of Douala, and the industrial, hydroelectric, and bauxite mining area near Edea. The major ethnic groups are the Duala and Bassa.
The southern part of the French-speaking area includes the high plateau region of the West province, which includes the Bamiléké and Bamoun peoples. Both are culturally similar to the Grassfielders. The Bamiléké constitute roughly 25 percent of the population. In rich volcanic soils they grow food crops and coffee. The population is dense, and the Bamiléké served as a labor reserve population in the twentieth century, resulting in large, entrepreneurial urban émigré population. The large urban population is prominent in commerce and higher education. Since the conversion of Sultan Njoya to Islam early in the twentieth century, the Bamoun have been a largely Muslim people. Sultan Njoya, a man of unusual intellect, developed an original alphabet and wrote a history of his people and dynasty.

A sense of a common national culture has been created through shared history, schooling, national holidays and symbols, and enthusiasm for soccer. However, ethnic distinctiveness remains, and ethnic identity became an increasingly important source of social capital during the 1990s.

Location and Geography. Cameroon is situated by the Gulf of Guinea on the west coast of Africa. Its area is 179,527 square miles (465,000 square kilometers). Nigeria lies to the west, Chad and the Central African Republic to the east, and the People's Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon to the south. The climate is hot and humid in the forested south and west, cooler in the highland Grassfields region of the West and Northwest provinces, and hotter and drier in the savanna and sahel of the north. The capital, Yaoundé, is in the Center province. It has experienced rapid growth and increasing strife between immigrant groups (particularly the Bamiléké) and the native Beti.

Demography. The population in 1987 was 10,498,655; it was estimated to be nearly 14 million in 1997. In 1987, 46 percent of the population was under fifteen years old. The population is growing at an average annual rate of almost 3 percent, with declining mortality and high fertility. Thirty-eight percent of the population lives in urban centers.

There are no reliable population figures for the major cultural groups. The Bamiléké account for approximately 25 percent of the total population, and northerners, including the Fulani, approximately 20 percent. These two groups also have the highest fertility rates.

Linguistic Affiliation. French and English are the official languages. The approximately two hundred fifty local languages include Ewondo and Bulu, Duala, the Bamiléké languages, and Fulfulde. Among the less educated, the Wes Cos dialect of Pidgin English functions as a lingua franca in the English-speaking area and in many neighborhoods in Douala. Both French and English are taught in school, but only those with a secondary education are fluent in both. Most people speak at least one local language and one official language, and many people are multilingual.

Symbolism. The flag has three equal vertical stripes of green, red, and yellow, with a five-pointed gold star in the center of the red stripe. The stripes represent the three major geographic areas: green for the rain forest, red for the laterite soils of the savanna, and yellow for the sands of the sahel. The national anthem begins with the words O Cameroun, berceau de nos ancetres ("Oh, Cameroon, cradle of our ancestors"), reflecting the importance of ancestors and kinship and the desire to forge an imagined community with a common ancestry. The feeling of national unity is strongest among schoolchildren and has been stressed since the end of the cold war.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. Before colonization, Cameroon was a territory of diverse climatic zones populated by a variety of peoples and polities. The Muslim states in the north traded with trans-Saharan merchants and Arabic peoples. The coastal peoples in the south traded with Portuguese and Dutch seafarers beginning in the late fifteenth century. In 1884, Cameroon became a German protectorate (Kamerun). The Germans were defeated by British and French forces in 1916, and the territory was divided between those nations in 1916. In 1922, the French and British zones became League of Nations mandates, with the French controlling over 80 percent of the national territory. Those zones were transformed into United Nations Trusteeships in 1946. The frontier between the French and British zones cut through the territories of several ethnic groups, particularly the Bamiléké and Grassfields peoples of the western highlands. This later served as an impetus for the reunification of those zones at the time of independence. French Cameroon (Cameroun) became independent in 1960, and after a plebiscite in 1961, British Cameroon gained independence. The southern part of the British territory joined the Federal Republic of Cameroon, while the northern part, ethnically united with the Hausa-city states, joined Nigeria. In 1965, Cameroon came under single-party rule. It was renamed the United Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and the Republic of Cameroon in 1984.

National Identity. A national culture was first formed by external powers through colonization. Even regional cultural differences emerged originally during the periods of mandate and trusteeship. A sentiment of common national identity is particularly strong in major institutions of socialization such as schools and during international soccer matches, visits by foreign dignitaries, and times of international dispute. Ahmadou Ahidjo, a Muslim from the northern city of Guider, who was president from independence until 1982, attempted to foster national integration by posting civil servants to areas outside their ethnic homelands. His successor, Paul Biya, is a Catholic of the Bulu (Beti) people of the South province. In 1983 and 1984, alleged coup attempts by those loyal to Ahidjo led to martial law and ethnic tensions between groups in the northern and southern regions. Since the legalization of multiparty politics in 1992, political parties have been increasingly associated with specific ethnic groups or regions.

Ethnic Relations. In addition to regional and ethnic distinctions, coalitions and tensions exist on a local level. People from the northern areas are collectively referred to as "northerners" by their southern compatriots and share some cultural attributes related to their Islamic religion. Anglophone and Francophone peoples of the Grassfields (Grassfielders, Bamiléké, and Bamoun) share common attributes and have practiced their own interchiefdom diplomacy for several centuries. In February 1992, violence between the Arab Choa and Kokoto ethnic groups during voter registration led to the death of more than one hundred people. Violence reemerged two years later, leading over one thousand people to seek refuge in Chad. In the Grassfields of the Northwest and Western provinces, interdependence and conflict between farmers and grazers coincide with ethnicity. The ethnicization of party politics and the increasing importance of ethnicity in relation to economic claims have led to conflicts between "autochthonous" (indigenous) and migrant populations.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

The major cities include Douala (the shipping and industrial center), Yaoundé (the capital), Nkongsamba (the end point of the railroad through the southern plantations of the colonial period), Maroua and Garoua, Bafoussam and Bamenda (the provincial capitals of the West and Northwest provinces), Kumba, and Limbe. Yaoundé has several monuments to national unity.

Most villages and small towns in rural areas have a marketplace in a central location that may house a weekly, biweekly, or daily market, depending on their size. Most markets have separate areas for women's products (produce and palm oil), and men's products (livestock and bush meat). Official buildings are often located near these markets or along the central axis leading through smaller towns.

Architecture varies by region. In the rain forest and the Grassfields, poto-poto (earthen plaster on a wooden frame) and mud brick rectangular buildings roofed in palm thatch or corrugated iron are common. Traditional Grassfields architecture was constructed of "bamboo" (the spines of raffia palm fronds); square or rectangular buildings with sliding doors were topped by conical thatched roofs. The doorposts of royalty had elaborate carvings. Traditional architecture in the north includes round mud buildings crowned in thatch. Walled compounds usually include a separate granary. Throughout the nation, structures built of concrete bricks, corrugated iron roofs, and iron grillwork have replaced other forms of housing.

Much of daily life occurs in public areas such as the courtyards of polygynous compounds. Privacy is often suspect, especially among peoples with a strong belief in malevolent and occult powers.

Diamond In The Rough

The likes are often said in several articles and books, but to say a diamond is to say uniqueness and purity, but we know how difficult it is to get a precious stone like diamond. The gem is not like others, its eternal by nature and radiant in beauty.

The African grace can be said to be diamond in the rough' Africa as a continent has come a long way from time past. Africa as a continent has had it all with slavery and wars, from the Egyptian empire to Syria, to Roman Empire and the French Invasion. We’ve had it with slavery, one of the roughest times in history past. Then as individual nations, we've experience colonialism and then crisis that led to several civil wars. When I say "Diamond In The Rough" I speak of the African Heritage, the African Heritage can’t be complete without the sufferings of slavery and that of colonialism, even today, some African Nations are still under modern colonialism or slavery. The dominancy of the French on several African nations can not be overlooked, till date the French still secretly dictate for several African Nations, one of which is Ivory Coast or Cote De Ivoire, some other francophone nations in Africa are still under the French dictatorship.

With all that we have been through, we can still be said to be the better people of the world, in terms of development, we know we can blame it on colonialism and slavery. but we are still thriving to be developed, when the French came, they thought us how to be strong at will, even when there was less freedom, the African Man thrived to survive, and though South Africa as a Nation went through their dark age, they can also be said to be the most socialized and developing nation in the world. Am not writing this with pains or regrets, but with pride and the joy that even after all the struggles, the African Nation, the African Child is still strong and shining like the diamond in the rough.

At this point in our lives, I believe that every nation should be a sovereign state and not under dictatorship, we should also use the slavery days as the days of glory, that even after all that we went through, we are still strong and able to accept all the nations that colonized or supported slavery, today, we even inter marry, share tourist ideas, travel and share our cultures and traditions. Africa is great; Africa is the Diamond that has gone through rough times. Africa is shining, Africa will continue shining, Africa' lives forever.

The Most Expensive Diamonds In The World

De Beers Centenary Diamond: $ 100 Millions De Beers Centenary Diamond has 273. 85 carat (54. 77 g) weight. It’s the third largest diamond has been produced in the Premier Mine. The Centenary Diamond is rated as a level D color by Gemological Institute of America, which is the highest grade diamond is colorless and internally and externally flawless. Centenary Diamond was named as shown in the rough for Centennial.The Centenary Diamond was introduced formally in May 1991.

De Beers Centenary Diamond

Diamonds

Johannesburg, South Africa

MINTEK, South Africa’s minerals science council, announced that it will be embarking on a geoscientific study to research the possibilities of origin-determination for rough diamonds.  The project is aimed at determining whether trace elements can be used to discriminate between diamonds from different geographical sources.  While MINTEK will first study South African diamond types, it foresees future international collaboration.

MINTEK will be working in conjunction with the South Africa Diamond and Precious Metals Regulator (SADPMR) on the project.  Ashok Damarupurshad, Strategist at SADPMR, further clarified the goal of geochemical fingerprinting for individual diamonds.  “If proven to be successful, diamond fingerprinting would help to reduce theft and illegal mining and help prevent ‘conflict diamonds’ from entering legitimate trade, which is the objective of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme.”

A huge gemstone that could become the world’s largest polished round diamond has been found at the Letseng Mine, owned by Gem Diamonds, in Lesotho, southern Africa.
The diamond weighs 478 carats and is the twentieth largest ever found. Gem Diamonds said initial examination suggests it has a flawless center and could produce a 150-carat round-cut white diamond worth tens of millions of dollars.
"Preliminary examination of this remarkable diamond indicates that it will yield a record-breaking polished stone of the very best color and clarity," the company's Chief Executive Clifford Elphick said in a statement.
The stone would dwarf the 105-carat Kohinoor in Great Britain's Crown Jewels. The largest rough diamond found was the Cullinan, in 1905, which weighed 3,106 carats uncut.

San Diego Diamonds

The diamond is the most sought-after of all the gemstones. Diamonds are so popular in fact, they have been deemed “a girl’s best friend.” At David & Sons Jewelers, we have an outstanding, extensive collection of diamonds. We offer loose diamonds and custom designed diamond jewelry, including engagement rings. We have two diamond stores located in San Diego. Diamonds are associated with all types of events and celebrations, for example engagements, marriage, weddings, birthdays, gifts to loved ones, holidays, and much, much more. Whether you're looking for San Diego engagment rings, or just diamond rings in San Diego, stop by David & Sons or contact one of our representatives for information.

Ancient Americas

Mexican Culture

Tula de Allende, Hidalgo, Mexico

The culture of the Mexican people is a culmination of thousands of years of history and a number of prominent civilizations mixed with cultures from foreign countries. Mexico is composed of a variety of ethnicities, resulting in a fusion of cultures in the country. When visiting Mexico, it is important to have an idea of their culture.
Foreigners attract a lot of vendors in the streets, since they are potential customers. If you do not want to buy from them, it would be best to say so immediately and with emphasis.
A large percentage of Mexicans are Roman Catholics, and are thus quite conservative. Some Mexicans may be offended or may have strong opinions about certain sensitive topics, such as homosexuality and birth control, among others.

Shorts, miniskirts and revealing tops are not commonly worn outdoors by Mexicans. It may be inappropriate to wear these kinds of clothes in certain locations, such as in places of worship.
No matter what other sources say, it is inappropriate and illegal to bribe a police officer. Although corruption is present in Mexico, it may come across as rude for a foreigner to do that, especially if the police officer is an honest individual. It could also put you in an even worse dilemma.
When touring Mexico, respect their laws and policies. Some tourist spots, especially protected sites that need to be preserved, have specific rules regarding photography and activities that can be done on site.
Finally, Mexicans are a very welcoming group of people, especially to tourists. If you need assistance, Mexicans will more likely help you out. If you don’t understand Spanish, younger Mexicans who know how to speak basic English can help you out.

Australian Aboriginal Culture

The Northern Territory is one of the world's most exciting frontiers. Here, there are aboriginal legends and flying doctors, huge cattle stations, and a massive river diversion scheme. Here are awesome gorges and camel farms, crocodile infested rivers, vast deserts, casinos and world class tourist resorts. Territorians are vibrant, outgoing and extra friendly. The Territory is vast and dynamic - some say, "There's no place more Australian". Come outback to Goway's Northern Territory. You'll be amazed...!

THE ABORIGINES:

Forty thousand years ago, long before the Pharaonic age of Egypt, the Aboriginal people lived in Australia. Their culture has given this country of treasure, art, and folklore a period known as the "Dreamtime". According to the "Dreamtime" legends, the country was once a vast feature-less land inhabited by giant spirit creatures. Over time, the spirits made epic journeys across the land, creating mountains, rivers, rocks, animals and plants.
The easiest place to see Aboriginal culture is the Northern Territory, which has by far the greater number of sacred sites and ancient art. The most famous sacred site is Ayers Rock, known by the Aborigines as "Uluru". At the nearby Yulara resort, guides and displays explain features of the region. From Alice Springs you can take tours which show how the local landmarks relate to the "Dreamtime" legends and the skills used by the Aborigines for thousands of years to live in the Outback.

Traditional paintings, carvings, weaving, boomerangs and shields are on display at museums and galleries in every capital city.

 

 

Australian Aboriginal Culture

Australia's indigenous people, the Aborigines, can trace back their culture 50,000 years. Aborigines have survived harsh desert conditions and have a detailed knowledge of the plants, animals and water sources available in the country.
For the traveller who wishes to gain an insight into their culture there are a number of tours hosted by or arranged in conjunction with Aboriginal communities. Many tours feature Aboriginal folklore, the Dreamtime, an epic tale of the land and how it was formed. To keep their folklore alive, the Aborigines re-tell their stories in songs, fables, dances and cave paintings. On many tours cave paintings and stone carvings can be visited.
Bark paintings, fabrics, ceramics, jewellery, clothing and musical instruments can be purchased at gift and souvenir outlets in major cities and some outback areas.
Major Aboriginal areas rich in cultural heritage are Arnhem Land and Uluru in the Northern Territory, Quinkan Reserves and Kuranda in Queensland, Bibbulmun Trek and the Kimberley in Western Australia, Ku-ring-gai Chase and Mootwingee National Parks in New South Wales, Tandanya in Adelaide, South Australia, The Grampians (Gariwerd), Lake Condah Aboriginal Mission in Victoria and Namadgi National Park in the Australian Capital Territory.
It is generally thought that Aborigines have been living on the continent for the last 50,000 years, originally migrating from Indonesia. The oldest skeleton found in Australia was discovered at Lake Mungo in south-west New South Wales, is believed to be 38,000 years old, and bears traces of ceremonial ochre. This is thought to be the oldest sign of ochre use ever discovered.
Unlike most other races, Aboriginals were not cultivators, relying instead on a form of controlled burning of vegetation known as 'fire-stick farming'. They did not develop a sense of land ownership, although Aboriginal children were taught from an early age that they belonged to the land and must respect tribal boundaries. Tribes returned to particular sites to bury their dead. Some areas were designated sacred sites because of their association with the Dreamtime, the time when the earth was formed and cycles of life and nature were initiated.
Aboriginal legends, songs and dances tell of powerful spirits who created the land and people during the Dreamtime. There is no written Aboriginal language and most of the 600 tribes spoke different dialects and languages. They rarely met except on ceremonial occasions. The tradition of the Dreamtime, however, was a unifying force and rock paintings depicting this creation period can be found dotted throughout the country. Some of the most striking and best preserved of these can be viewed at rock galleries in Kakadu National Park and other parts of northern Australia.
The arrival of white people gradually brought an end to the traditional Aboriginal way of life, when settlement began to encroach on tribal lands. Today, most Aborigines live in cities and towns or in isolated settlements near tribal lands. Few continue their nomadic ways. In recent years, white Australians have become more sensitive to the plight of Aborigines, resulting in increased health and educational services, greater recognition of Aboriginal land rights and a growing appreciation of Aboriginal culture. Specialised galleries display Aboriginal art, tools, musical instruments and artefacts. These are highly valued and avidly sought by collectors all over the world.

ABORIGINAL WORDS AND CONCEPTS

Around 250 separate languages have been recorded throughout Australia. The following is a handful of commonly used Aboriginal words, as well as concepts which briefly describe the Aboriginal experience.

BARRAMUNDI - a large river fish found in the warm, northern waters of Western Australia, Northern Territory and Queensland. It is highly valued for its wonderful flavour by both Aborigines and Europeans.
BILLABONG - a small pool or lagoon.
BOOMERANG- used as both a weapon and a clapping instrument to accompany songs and dances.
BORA- initiation ceremony at which boys are admitted into the responsibilities of manhood. Bora Rings, or initiation grounds, occurred in pairs, with a larger ring and a smaller ring joined by an external pathway. The boys were brought to the larger ring by a female relative and handed over to the older men who took them to the smaller ring for the secret parts of the ceremony.
COOEE - a long, shrill call originally used by an Aborigine to communicate with someone at a distance. It has been widely adopted as a signal, especially in the bush.
COOLAMON - wooden vessel for holding water, seeds or a baby, often made from a hollowed knot of a tree. Also called a pitchi.
CORROBOREE - a dance ceremony which may be sacred or informal. In corroborees of ritual significance the dancers act out ancestral scenes.
DIDGERIDOO - long cylindrical wind instrument - usually 90-150 cm in length - originally from Arnhem Land - known as the Yidaki. Made of wood and often painted with the owner's own totem, it produces a low-pitched, resonant sound.
DREAMING - the spiritual identification of an individual or an object with a place, or with a species of plant or animal. A Dreaming Path is a place or route of Dreamtime significance along which Dreamtime ancestors travelled.
DREAMTIME - the time of creation; a set of events beyond living memory which shaped the physical, spiritual and moral world. The Dreamtime stories tell of the time when the Ancestral Beings rose from the earth in animal and human forms and created the landscape as we now see it. Dreaming is an English word, and each Aboriginal language has its own word with the same or similar meaning.
GUNYAH - a temporary bark shelter built by traditional Aborigines.
KOORI - the name Aborigines from the regions that now encompass most of New South Wales and Victoria use to refer to themselves.

MIMI - the spirit people depicted in rock and bark paintings from western Arnhem Land. Believed to be trickster spirits, the Mimi disappear into the rock walls of caves and shelters and sometimes leave their shadows behind, which appear as paintings. Paintings of the Mimi are characterised by their graceful, elongated shape.
NULLA NULLA - a hardwood club used in fighting and hunting.
PUKAMANI - ceremonial burial poles from the Tiwi communities on Bathurst and Melville Islands, north of Darwin.
RAINBOW SERPENT - a widely venerated spirit of Aboriginal mythology.
WALKABOUT - a journey on foot, as undertaken by an Aborigine in order to live in the traditional way. It originally referred to a hunting and gathering trip that would last from a few hours to a few days.
WOOMERA - wooden spear thrower.

Watch Alice In Wonderland On A 3D and wow yourself

Director Tim Burton takes us further down the rabbit hole than we have ever been with his new adventure of Alice in Wonderland based on characters from the books by Lewis Carroll.
It was well worth the wait. The combination of 3D, animation and live action is a tasty treat for your eyes to behold. You will be filled with wonderment at the Red Queen’s bulbous head, her devout tin soldier army, terrified bullfrog servants and live monkey furniture. This is a familiar world we have been to full of old friends and new surprises.
“They gave me a script and they said 3D,” says Tim Burton. “And even before I read it I thought that’s intriguing, and what I liked about Linda Woolverton’s script was she made it a story, gave it a shape for a movie that’s not necessarily the book.”

Alice, played by Mia Wasikowska, is older now and although plagued with the same dream over and over again she doesn’t remember ever being to a place called Wonderland. She is nineteen years old and overwhelmed with the pressures of what society expects of her. She has started to rebel in her own way by refusing to dress in a corset and stockings that a lady should wear or act according to the manners of how a lady should. When confronted with a embarrassingly public wedding proposal by a man she doesn’t want to be with she chooses to run away from the situation to follow a strangely familiar looking white rabbit wearing a waistcoat and carrying a wristwatch which seems to be telling her it is Her time. She follows the rabbit through a hedge and down the rabbit hole and the tale begins as the original story did with her drinking potions that make her small and cake that makes her big. Secret admirers watching from behind the door of what is now known as Underland are quickly confused at why she doesn’t remember any of this from the last time. The movie quickly moves through a whirlwind of re-introductions as we meet Tweedledee and Tweedledum, the Blue Caterpillar, the mystifying and always purring Cheshire Cat, the White Rabbit and some new creatures we have never seen before.
“What I liked about this take on the story is Alice is at an age where you’re between a kid and an adult, when you’re crossing over as a person. A lot of young people with old souls aren’t so popular in their own culture and their own time. Alice is somebody who doesn’t quite fit into that Victorian structure and society. She’s more internal,” says Burton.
Alice is quickly questioned by everyone if she could possibly be the same Alice as before. The Underland creatures and the White Queen have been waiting for her to return to be their champion. She is suppose to be their hero that fights the dreaded Jabberwocky whose death will annihilate the reign of the dreaded Red Queen who is more interested in beheading her patrons rather than ruling them. This was a very refreshing version of Alice that when later dressed in a suit of gleaming silver armour becomes a character likened to Joan of Arc who leads the people to justice and saves them against all odds. She is a girl who wants to be different. She is strong and although confused by her surroundings in the beginning she quickly becomes the adventurer that knows no bounds near the end. It is an exhilarating to be with her on her journey of discovery and this movie provides a fantastic role model for all ages in finding the strength from deep within when faced with the impossible. Mia Wasikowska does a fabulous job playing the strong willed Alice that will inspire and warm the hearts of many for years to come.
Johnny Depp’s portrayal of the Mad Hatter is impeccable. This character has been done so many times in movies and theatre that it is always a difficult role to take on because it has been so typecast. The scene of the tea party alone is incredibly done as it is a roller coaster ride of happiness, madness, fear and optimism. The Mad Hatter used to work for the White Queen and is waiting for the rule of the Red Queen to be over. In the interim he has gone from being a kind of court jester to someone that has gone round the bend. He alone shows us his great sorrow, joy, confusion, regret and hope for a better day. He has been waiting for years at the same tea party for Alice to return and save them. Alice becomes his sanity anchor that keeps him grounded and gives him a purpose in life from that of making grand hats. Their friendship is incredibly touching and the way they become bound to one another to find their strengths is incredibly endearing. The Mad Hatter is not a one sided portrayal in this tale, he is a hero that provides capricious comic relief and tugs at your heart strings with his loss of reality. Depp has done a brilliant job of this character and made him the most lovable, believably mad Mad Hatter I have ever seen. I tip my hat to him. This is an Oscar winning performance that you don’t want to miss.
“The combination of being able to play the Mad Hatter and take what Lewis Carroll has done and what Tim’s vision is, and then throw your own stuff in there… it’s a dream come true. It was a real challenge to find something different, to define the Mad Hatter in terms of cinema of the things Tim and I talked about early on, is the idea that he would be so pure, in the sense that you see, instantly, what he’s feeling — so much so that his clothes, his skin, his hair, everything, reflects his emotion. So when he’s beaming, you get this kind of bright effect and everything comes to life, like a flower blooming, very, very quickly. He’s like a mood ring. His emotions are very close to the surface,” says Depp.
Other notable mentions go to Helena Bonham Carter who is the Red Queen for playing a character who’s confused on what is better, to be feared or to be loved. A character that can be easily hated that you can still have sympathy for is a hard role to play. She seems to be very hurt that her parents always gave their attention to her younger sister. She lashes out because she always felt unloved and it becomes painfully clear that her only way to get back at them is to take it out on everyone around her for having what is considered a normal sized head instead of her larger one. This has led to her obsession with beheadings as she hopes it will be her sister’s soon or possibly the symbolism of getting rid of her own that has caused her such emotional turmoil. Either way, she plays her part incredibly well as an arrogant, royal pain in the kingdom.
She doesn’t really rule through any kind of justice or fairness, but through terror,” says Bonham Carter. “I chop off people’s heads. That’s my solution to everything.”
The White Queen played by Anne Hathaway whose portrayal of almost every Disney character princess you have ever seen is amusing but possibly a little too stereotyped as it’s hard to take her completely seriously. I know they are all suppose to be a bit over the top but I think she should have been a bit more grounding like the Elvin Queen, Lady Galadriel, played by Cate Blanchett from Lord of the Rings rather than a queen who refused to become strong like Alice and has been waiting for someone else to come and fight her own battles. Even a slight change of her hand gestures and mannerisms would have made her a character more captivating and commendable.
The voice of the Blue Caterpillar by Alan Rickman was the perfect choice. His deep, baritone voice commanded your attention to his sage advice. Ever since I saw him play Col. Christopher Brandon in Sense and Sensibility he has been one of my favourite, character actors as he always steals the scene with his distinct voice and undeniable charm. After years of seeing him play Professor Severus Snape in the Harry Potter movies it is very fitting to see him as a captivating Disney character.
The Cheshire Cat was another one of my favourite characters as the animation is so well done that it brings the character to life and makes him delightful to watch. In the original tales he seems menacing and a tad bit scary but in this tale he is beguiling and adorable. You don’t quite know what he’s up to and if you should trust him but you can’t help but like him anyway. Just like a real cat, he does what he wants and still captures your heart.
Tim Burton and Disney are a dynamic duel and the combination of both their unique visions creates a stunning pictorial piece of art you don’t want to miss. Hopefully they will keep up the partnership to bring us some more magic that we can add to our lives as we can never have enough of it. Maybe with Alice off on more adventures and the movie undoubtedly on its way to winning many awards we will see some more movies in the future with Tim Burton and Disney working together again. I know that I personally always think of at least six impossible things before breakfast. Do you?

Ethnicity "Nigeria"

Nigeria Ethnicity

Nigeria is one of the world's most ethnically diverse countries. The Hausa and Yoruba make up around 21 percent of the population; the Igbo/Ibo, 18 percent; the Fulani, around 11 percent; and Ibibio, 5 percent. Various other groups make up the remaining 23 percent. Nigeria has such a variety of people and cultures that it is difficult to pick one national dish. Each area has its own regional favorite that depends on customs, tradition, and religion. The different foods available also depend on the season.

Ethnic Groups In South Africa

Ethnic Groups

Until 1991, South African law divided the population into four major racial categories: (1.) The Black Africans, of which the Nguni and Sotho groups account for 90% of the Black population. Black population accounts 75% of the South Africa's entire population. (2.) The Whites who account for about 13% of the population. (3.) The Indians who account for around 3 % and (4.) the Coloreds who are mixed White and Black descent and account for 9% of the population. Although the South African law of racial categories has been abolished, many South Africans still view themselves according to these categories.

The black population consists of several groups: Khoi-San, Xhosa, Zulu, Ndebele, Sotho, Shangaan and Venda, just to name a few. The biggest groups are Zulus (21 %), Xhosas (17 %) and the Sotho (15%). Next smaller minorities are the Tswana, Venda, Ndebele, Swasi, and Pedi, among others. The Khoi-Sans are originally hunter-gatherers who have inhabited the land for a long time. Many political leaders, Nelson Mandela among them, come from the Xhosa. Most of the Blacks used to live in the countryside following a traditional way of life, but a class of progressive farmers also formed. Many of these became Christians and had some education from Missionaries. In the towns many Blacks worked as labourers. A small class of professional newspaper editors, lawyers and teachers emerged.

The apartheid regime over-emphasised the differences among the various ethnic group, mainly between whites and non-whites, but also between black groups (i.e. Xhosas and Zulus), and turned them against each other rather than against the government. The policy of racial segregation favoured the political and economic power for the white minority. Until today, South Africa has to deal with the consequences of this disastrous policy. Large part of the fast growing black majority lives in oppressive poverty in the outer districts of the cities lacking sufficient sanitation, electricity and water. Many of the residents are illiterate. The enormous poverty problem in South Africa is the major reason for the high crime rates.

The first Europeans to reach the Cape of Good Hope were Portuguese, arriving in 1488. However, permanent white settlement did not begin until 1652, when the Dutch East India Company established a provisioning station on the Cape. In subsequent decades, French Huguenot refugees, the Dutch, and Germans began to settle in the Cape. Thus, The Whites are primarily descendants of Dutch, French, English, and German settlers who arrived at the Cape in the late 17th. They are called Afrikaners and speak Afrikaans, a language closely related to the Dutch language.

The province of Natal is also home to about one million Indians, whose forefathers came to South Africa to work on the sugarcane plantations. They were brought by the British people in the 19th century. Indians were among the exploited and among the exploiters. Most were poor, having come as indentured labourers under a brutal system that was very close to slavery. When their terms of indenture expired, many stayed on as labourers or small farmers. A smaller, but more prominent group of Indians, came voluntarily to engage in trade. They opened up shops and warehouses and some of them were quite rich.

Among the non-White peoples, the second largest group is the Coloured community, 89% of whom lived in the Cape Colony. Generally thought of as a mixed-race group, it loosely included some Indians, Malays and native Africans. Like the Indians, the Coloured are neither Black nor White, and their intermediate position generated fears of being reduced to the status of the Blacks. So-called coloureds, people of mixed race are mainly still living in the Cape region. They originate from Dutch sailors inter-marrying with the Khoi-San in the 17th century. They are also descendants of the first Dutch settlers and the native population of the Cape (Khoikhoi) or the Malays, who were taken to South Africa as slaves from East India in the 18th century.

Despite the many ethnic groups, South Africa is still far from the ideal of a multi-cultural society. There is still a deep trench going through the population. Black and white people lead largely separate lives with few points of contact. Nevertheless, the society's democratisation is steadily progressing. A national commission attempts to make people conscious about the crimes of apartheid by letting them be publicly confessed with the aim of forgiveness. South Africa is, in respect of overcoming racism, in the spotlight of the world like no other country. The future of the state largely depends upon its ability to create equal opportunities for all people.