Ethnic Groups In South Africa

Ethnic Groups

Until 1991, South African law divided the population into four major racial categories: (1.) The Black Africans, of which the Nguni and Sotho groups account for 90% of the Black population. Black population accounts 75% of the South Africa's entire population. (2.) The Whites who account for about 13% of the population. (3.) The Indians who account for around 3 % and (4.) the Coloreds who are mixed White and Black descent and account for 9% of the population. Although the South African law of racial categories has been abolished, many South Africans still view themselves according to these categories.

The black population consists of several groups: Khoi-San, Xhosa, Zulu, Ndebele, Sotho, Shangaan and Venda, just to name a few. The biggest groups are Zulus (21 %), Xhosas (17 %) and the Sotho (15%). Next smaller minorities are the Tswana, Venda, Ndebele, Swasi, and Pedi, among others. The Khoi-Sans are originally hunter-gatherers who have inhabited the land for a long time. Many political leaders, Nelson Mandela among them, come from the Xhosa. Most of the Blacks used to live in the countryside following a traditional way of life, but a class of progressive farmers also formed. Many of these became Christians and had some education from Missionaries. In the towns many Blacks worked as labourers. A small class of professional newspaper editors, lawyers and teachers emerged.

The apartheid regime over-emphasised the differences among the various ethnic group, mainly between whites and non-whites, but also between black groups (i.e. Xhosas and Zulus), and turned them against each other rather than against the government. The policy of racial segregation favoured the political and economic power for the white minority. Until today, South Africa has to deal with the consequences of this disastrous policy. Large part of the fast growing black majority lives in oppressive poverty in the outer districts of the cities lacking sufficient sanitation, electricity and water. Many of the residents are illiterate. The enormous poverty problem in South Africa is the major reason for the high crime rates.

The first Europeans to reach the Cape of Good Hope were Portuguese, arriving in 1488. However, permanent white settlement did not begin until 1652, when the Dutch East India Company established a provisioning station on the Cape. In subsequent decades, French Huguenot refugees, the Dutch, and Germans began to settle in the Cape. Thus, The Whites are primarily descendants of Dutch, French, English, and German settlers who arrived at the Cape in the late 17th. They are called Afrikaners and speak Afrikaans, a language closely related to the Dutch language.

The province of Natal is also home to about one million Indians, whose forefathers came to South Africa to work on the sugarcane plantations. They were brought by the British people in the 19th century. Indians were among the exploited and among the exploiters. Most were poor, having come as indentured labourers under a brutal system that was very close to slavery. When their terms of indenture expired, many stayed on as labourers or small farmers. A smaller, but more prominent group of Indians, came voluntarily to engage in trade. They opened up shops and warehouses and some of them were quite rich.

Among the non-White peoples, the second largest group is the Coloured community, 89% of whom lived in the Cape Colony. Generally thought of as a mixed-race group, it loosely included some Indians, Malays and native Africans. Like the Indians, the Coloured are neither Black nor White, and their intermediate position generated fears of being reduced to the status of the Blacks. So-called coloureds, people of mixed race are mainly still living in the Cape region. They originate from Dutch sailors inter-marrying with the Khoi-San in the 17th century. They are also descendants of the first Dutch settlers and the native population of the Cape (Khoikhoi) or the Malays, who were taken to South Africa as slaves from East India in the 18th century.

Despite the many ethnic groups, South Africa is still far from the ideal of a multi-cultural society. There is still a deep trench going through the population. Black and white people lead largely separate lives with few points of contact. Nevertheless, the society's democratisation is steadily progressing. A national commission attempts to make people conscious about the crimes of apartheid by letting them be publicly confessed with the aim of forgiveness. South Africa is, in respect of overcoming racism, in the spotlight of the world like no other country. The future of the state largely depends upon its ability to create equal opportunities for all people.

Central Africa

Peoples of Central Africa

Ethnic Groups in Rwanda Rwanda has a population of approximately 7 million. The languages spoken in this country are French, Kinyarwanda, and Kiswahili; and the religions practiced are Christian, traditional African, and Muslim. The total population of this country comprises several peoples, the most predominant of which are the three ethnic groups: the Tutsi, the Hutu, and the Twa. Photo: Courtesy of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund

The Twa, a subgroup of the African Pygmies, are slightly larger than most pygmies. Adult males average 1.5 m (5 ft) and 45 kg (100 lb). The Twa, the earliest settlers of this area, originally lived off the land as hunters and gatherers in the once extensive forests around the Virunga Mountains. But as the forests were cut down--first by the Hutu for farming and grazing, then by the Tutsi for grazing--the Twa population began to decrease. Today the Twa make up only 1% of the total population. Compared to the other ethnic groups within Rwandan society, the Twa hold an inferior position, due to their smaller size and their customs, which are considered primitive by the Tutsi and Hutu.





The Hutu are related to the Bantu tribes of Central and East Africa. They are typically larger than the Twa--adult males average 1.5 m, 13 cm (5 ft, 5 in.) and 59 kg (130 lb). They also, in general, have dark skin and stocky builds. The Hutu have lived in the area for approximately 2,000 years as farmers. Farm work is divided equally between both women and men, and a person's reputation for hard work is prized within this group. Farming along the edges of the Virunga forest, the Hutu converted large parts of this forest into fields and pastures. This group is the largest ethnic group in Rwanda, making up 85-90% of the total population. Photo: Courtesy of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund

The Tutsi differ from both the Twa and the Hutu in physical appearance: they are taller, thinner, and lighter-skinned. Adult males average 1.5 m, 23 cm (5 ft, 9 in.) and 54 kg (120 lb), and height over 1.8 m (6 ft) is admired. When the Tutsi migrated into the Virunga area about 500 years ago, they herded cattle. They also brought a strong warrior tradition. The Tutsi soon subjugated the Hutu and established small kingdoms. From almost the time they entered the area until independence from the Europeans, the Tutsi ruled the area as royalty. (Their influence was so strong that even the value they placed on cattle eventually made ownership a symbol of prestige that still exists.) Although the Tutsi dominated and controlled society, they constituted only a minority of the population. Today they make up about 9-14% of Rwanda's population. Photo: Courtesy of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund



The centuries-old social tension between the Tutsi and the Hutu is the primary reason for the unrest and violence that began before Rwandan independence from Belgium in 1962. Before independence, the ruling colonial powers, first Germany and then Belgium, controlled Rwanda by continuing to use the existing Tutsi ruling caste. With independence and majority rule, the Hutu revolted, took control of the government, and violently drove the Tutsi from the country. Civil war has been bloody and ongoing. In 1994, the Tutsi again regained power in Rwanda and drove the Hutu out of the government and the country in a continuing, violent struggle.



Ethnic Groups in Congo (formerly Zaire) The Congolese population exceeds 46 million and comprises over 250 African tribal groups. Of these tribal groups, 80% are related to the Bantu tribes. The languages spoken in this country are French as well as about 700 ethnic languages and dialects. Four of these--Lingala, Swahili, Kikongo, and Tshiluba--serve as official languages. The religions practiced are Christian, traditional African, and Muslim.

Ethnic Groups in Uganda Uganda has a population of approximately 17 million. This country's native population includes the Bantu, Nilotic, and Nilo-Hamitic peoples. The Bantu population, which includes the Baganda people, numbers approximately 1 million, making it the largest group in the country. The languages spoken in this country are English, Luganda, and several other ethnic languages. The religions practiced are Christian, traditional African, and Muslim.

The World Wonders

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

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This article is about the Seven Ancient Wonders. For other Wonders, see Wonders of the World (disambiguation).

The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (from left to right, top to bottom): Great Pyramid of Giza, Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, Colossus of Rhodes, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria as depicted by 16th-century Dutch artist Marten Heemskerk.

The Great Pyramid of Giza, the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still standing.

The Seven Wonders of the World (or the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) is a well known list of remarkable constructions of classical antiquity. It was based on guidebooks popular among the ancient Hellenic tourists. The most prominent of these, the versions by Antipater of Sidon and an observer identified as Philon of Byzantium, is composed of seven works located around the Mediterranean rim. In turn, this original list has inspired innumerable versions through the ages, often in keeping with the limited number of seven entries. Of the original Seven Wonders, only one—the Great Pyramid of Giza—has remained relatively intact into the current day.

Contents 1 Background 2 Scope 3 The Seven Ancient Wonders 4 Influence 4.1 Arts and architecture 4.2 Modern lists 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

Background

Alexander the Great's conquest of much of the known world in the 4th century BC gave Hellenistic travelers access to the civilizations of the Egyptians, Persians, and Babylonians. These visitors, smitten by the landmarks and marvels of the various lands, began to list what they saw. As a way of organizing, a compendium of these places made it easier to remember. Indeed, in place of the contemporary usage of the word "wonder," the Greeks actually used the word "theamata," which translates to "things to be seen" or "must-sees." Hence, the list was meant to be the Ancient World's counterpart of a travel guidebook.
Each person had his own version of the list, but the best known and earliest surviving was from a poem by Greek-speaking epigrammist Antipater of Sidon from around 140 BC. He named seven sites on his list, but was primarily in praise of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus:

I have gazed on the walls of impregnable Babylon along which chariots may race, and on the Zeus by the banks of the Alpheus, I have seen the hanging gardens, and the Colossus of the Helios, the great man made mountains of the lofty pyramids, and the gigantic tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the sacred house of Artemis, that towers to the clouds, the others were placed in the shade, for the sun himself, has never looked upon its equal, outside Olympus'

– Antipater, Greek Anthology IX.58

Another 2nd-century-BC observer, who claimed to be the mathematician Philon of Byzantium, wrote a short account entitled The Seven Sights of the World. However, the incomplete surviving manuscript only covered six of the supposedly seven places, which agreed with Antipater's list.
Earlier and later lists by the historian Herodotus (484 BC–ca. 425 BC) and the architect Callimachus of Cyrene (ca. 305–240 BC), housed at the Museum of Alexandria, survived only as references.
The Colossus of Rhodes was the last of the seven to be completed, after 280 BC, but the first to be destroyed, by an earthquake in 226/225 BC. Hence, all seven existed at the same time for a period of less than 60 years. Few people could personally witness all the seven wonders.
Antipater had an earlier version which replaced Lighthouse of Alexandria with the Walls of Babylon. Lists which preceded the construction of Colossus of Rhodes completed their seven entries with the inclusion of the Ishtar Gate.
In the sixth century, a list of seven wonders was compiled by Gregory, Bishop of Tours. The list included the Temple of Solomon, the Pharos of Alexandria and Noah's Ark.

Scope

It is thought that the limitation of the lists to seven entries was attributed to the special magical meaning of the number. Geographically, the list only covered the sculptural and architectural monuments of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern regions, then thought to encompass the "known" world for the Greeks. Hence, extant sites beyond this realm were not considered as part of contemporary accounts.
The primary accounts, coming from Hellenistic writers, also heavily influenced the places included in the wonders list. Five of the seven entries are a celebration of Greek accomplishments in the arts and architecture (the exceptions being the Pyramids of Giza and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon).

The Seven Ancient Wonders

Wonder	Date of construction	Builder	Notable feature	Date of destruction	Cause of destruction	Modern Location
Great Pyramid of Giza	2584-2561 BC	Egyptians	Built as the tomb of fourth dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu.	Extant	Extant	Giza, Egypt
Hanging Gardens of Babylon	605-562 BC	Babylonians	Diodorus Siculus described multi-levelled gardens reaching 22 meters (75 feet) high, complete with machinery for circulating water. Large trees grew on the roof. Built by Nebuchadnezzar II for his wife Amytis of Media.	After 1st century BC	Earthquake	Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq
Statue of Zeus at Olympia	466-456 BC (Temple) 435 BC (Statue)	Greeks	Occupied the whole width of the aisle of the temple that was built to house it, and was 12 meters (40 feet) tall.	5th-6th centuries AD	Fire	Olympia, Greece
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus	c. 550 BC	Lydians, Persians, Greeks	Dedicated to the Greek goddess Artemis, it took 120 years to build. Herostratus burned it down to achieve lasting fame. Rebuilt by Alexander the Great only to be destroyed again by the Goths. It was rebuilt once again after, only to be closed in 391 and destroyed by a mob led by St John Chrysostom in 401.	356 BC (by Herostratus) AD 262 (by the Goths) AD 391 (by mob led by St John Chrysostom)	Arson by Herostratus, Plundering	near Selçuk, Izmir Province, Turkey
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus	351 BC	Carians, Persians, Greeks	Stood approximately 45 meters (135 feet) tall with each of the four sides adorned with sculptural reliefs. Origin of the word mausoleum, a tomb built for Mausolus, a satrap in the Persian Empire	by AD 1494	Damaged by an earthquake and eventually disassembled by European Crusaders.	Bodrum, Turkey
Colossus of Rhodes	292-280 BC	Greeks	A giant statue of the Greek god Helios, god of the sun, c. 35 m (110 ft) tall.	226 BC	Earthquake	Rhodes, Greece
Lighthouse of Alexandria	c. 280 BC	Hellenistic Egypt	Between 115 and 135 meters (383 – 440 ft) it was among the tallest structures on Earth for many centuries. The island that it was built on, Pharos, eventually spawned the Latin word for lighthouse, again Pharos.	AD 1303-1480	Earthquake	Alexandria, Egypt

Influence

 Arts and architecture

The seven wonders on Antipater's list won praises for their notable features, ranging from superlatives of the highest or largest of their types, to the artistry with which they were executed. Their architectural and artistic features were imitated throughout the Hellenistic world and beyond.
The Greek influence in Roman culture, and the revival of Greco-Roman artistic styles during the Renaissance caught the imagination of European artists and travellers. Paintings and sculptures alluding to Antipater's list were made, while adventurers flocked to the actual sites to personally witness the wonders. Legends circulated to further complement the superlatives of the wonders.

Modern lists

Of Antipater's wonders, the only one that has survived to the present day is the Great Pyramid of Giza. The existence of the Hanging Gardens has not been proven, although theories abound. Records and archaeology confirm the existence of the other five wonders. The Temple of Artemis and the Statue of Zeus were destroyed by fire, while the Lighthouse of Alexandria, Colossus, and tomb of Mausolus were destroyed by earthquakes. Among the artifacts to have survived are sculptures from the tomb of Mausolus and the Temple of Artemis in the British Museum in London.
Still, the listing of seven of the most marvellous architectural and artistic human achievements continued beyond the Ancient Greek times to the Roman Empire, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and to the modern age. The Roman poet Martial and the Christian bishop Gregory of Tours had their versions. Reflecting the rise of Christianity and the factor of time, nature and the hand of man overcoming Antipater's seven wonders, Roman and Christian sites began to figure on the list, including the Colosseum, Noah's Ark and Solomon's Temple. Modern historians, working on the premise that the original Seven Ancient Wonders List was limited in its geographic scope, also had their versions to encompass sites beyond the Hellenistic realm—from the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World to the Seven Wonders of the World. Indeed, the "seven wonders" label has spawned innumerable versions among international organizations, publications and individuals based on different themes—works of nature, engineering masterpieces, constructions of the Middle Ages, etc. Its purpose has also changed from just a simple travel guidebook or a compendium of curious places to list of sites that entail preservation and protection.

See also

• Wonders of the World, about similar lists made throughout the ages.
• Eighth Wonder of the World, about attempted additions to the famous ancient list.
• New Seven Wonders of the World, a list created after a global voting procedure.

Acient Civilization

Apollo, god of sun and music

Pythia of Delphi (on the left)

Greeks from different cities were aware that they worshipped gods with names that were the same as the gods of other cities, the gods of Homer and Hesiod, but the cities were likely to have twists to the stories about these gods that were special to their city. Each city, it has been said, had a story of creation that was a little different. But they held more or less in common that Zeus was the Lord of the heavens, the father of the other gods. They saw him as a god who became angry, and they feared his thunderbolts.

The city of Athens had its goddess Athena, who was said to have sprung from the forehead of Zeus. She was a virgin goddess of war and peace, of wisdom and a patron of arts and crafts. Various stories about her would come and go, while in marble form she dominated a temple built for her, where, after it was burned down by the Persians, the Parthenon was to be built. At Delphi was the temple of Adonis. Greek myth described Adonis as a beautiful youth with whom both the goddesses Aphrodite and Persephone fell in love. Persephone was the daughter of Zeus and a goddess of fertility in competition with Aphrodite. She presided over Hades, the place where the spirits of the dead resided. According to the myth of Adonis, Persephone, wanting Adonis, held him captive in Hades, and Aphrodite, also wanting Adonis, freed him from Hades and Persephone's captivity. Then, while hunting, Adonis was killed by a wild boar, which sent him back to Hades and Persephone. Aphrodite bitterly mourned his death and pleaded with Zeus to restore Adonis to her. Zeus decided to be impartial between the desires of Persephone and Aphrodite, and he decreed that Adonis would spend his winter months with Persephone -- an annual death. And he spent his summer months with Aphrodite -- an annual resurrection. These deaths and resurrections coincided with the seasonal cycles and the growth of crops. Adonis had become a fertility god. Every year, Greeks celebrated Adonis' death and resurrection, often with wailing and the beating of one's own breast with one's fists. At Delphi was an "eternal" and sacred fire, and a woman at the temple's core, served as the Pythia, an oracle who communicated with Apollo. She was a local woman, maybe young or old, maybe poor and illiterate or perhaps not. People, including statesmen, came as pilgrims to Delphi from various parts of Greece to put questions to Apollo, questions such as whether they should marry, whether their spouse was unfaithful, whether their city should go to war. The pilgrims would receive messages in the form of riddles that would leave them with the task of interpretation.When Athenians removed an aristocratic oligarchy from power the aristocrats went to Delphi and were encouraged by being told that Apollo was on their side. A leading aristocratic family from Athens, the Alcmaeonidaens, won the support of Sparta, and to do the will of Apollo, Sparta, in 510, sent an army and restored power to aristocrats. But a bigger rebellion overthrew the aristocrats again and created a democracy. In the early 400s BCE Greek city-states came together when invaded by the Persians. Athens and other cities met the Persians at Marathon. The Spartans wanted to join them, but they had their own religious concerns. They had to wait for the passing of a full moon. By the time they arrived at Marathon the battle had ended. They returned home praising the Athenians, and the Greeks of various cities held a religious festival at Delphi as thanksgiving to the gods for the victory at Marathon. There the oracle of Apollo praised Athens as great "for all time."The gods were not always kind to Sparta. In 464, an earthquake leveled most of Sparta's dwellings and killed around 20,000. The Spartans believed that the earthquake was the work of the earthshaking god Poseiden and that Poseiden had been offended by a recent violation of his sanctuary, from which some of their Helot slaves had been dragged away and executed. Following the earthquake, the Helots revolted, encouraged perhaps by their belief that the god Poseiden was sympathetic with their cause. They attacked what was left of Sparta, and they were joined in their rebellion by nearby enemies of Sparta who sought advantage from Sparta's sudden tragedy. The Spartans managed to contain the revolt, which lasted into 462.
Spartans were offended by the hostile alliance against them and by the meager support it received from Athens during the Helot revolt. Trade conflicts and power rivalry resulted in the Greek city-states splitting in two camps. One led by Sparta and the other by Athens, with Sparta believing that it had Apollo on its side. The Great Peloponnesian War erupted and lasted from 431 to 404 -- twenty-seven years. Sparta and its allies defeated Athens. Sparta's victory was celebrated at Delphi. Among Athenians was the view that Athena had judged them as deserving defeat because they had been insufficiently pious.

The Egyptian Pyramids

 The Giza Wonders

During Egypt's Old Kingdom (time line), the pharaohs established a stable central government in the fertile Nile Valley. Perhaps the greatest testaments to their power were the pyramids and other tombs built to shelter them in the afterlife.

Kings of the Dead

Ancient Egyptians believed that when the pharaoh died, he became Osiris, king of the dead. The new pharaoh became Horus, god of the heavens and protector of the sun god. This cycle was symbolized by the rising and setting of the sun.

Some part of a dead pharaoh's spirit, called his ka, was believed to remain with his body. And it was thought that if the corpse did not have proper care, the former pharaoh would not be able to carry out his new duties as king of the dead. If this happened, the cycle would be broken and disaster would befall Egypt.

To prevent such a catastrophe, each dead pharaoh was mummified, which preserved his body. Everything the king would need in his afterlife was provided in his grave—vessels made of clay, stone, and gold, furniture, food, even doll-like representations of servants, known as ushabti. His body would continue to receive food offerings long after his death.

Tombs Fit for Kings

To shelter and safeguard the part of a pharaoh's soul that remained with his corpse, Egyptians built massive tombs—but not always pyramids.

Before the pyramids, tombs were carved into bedrock and topped by flat-roofed structures called mastabas. Mounds of dirt, in turn, sometimes topped the structures.

The pyramid shape of later tombs could have come from these mounds. More likely, Egyptian pyramids were modeled on a sacred, pointed stone called the benben. The benben symbolized the rays of the sun; ancient texts claimed that pharaohs reached the heavens via sunbeams.

Who Built the Pyramids?

Contrary to some popular depictions, the pyramid builders were not slaves or foreigners. Excavated skeletons show that they were Egyptians who lived in villages developed and overseen by the pharaoh's supervisors.

The builders' villages boasted bakers, butchers, brewers, granaries, houses, cemeteries, and probably even some sorts of health-care facilities—there is evidence of laborers surviving crushed or amputated limbs. Bakeries excavated near the Great Pyramids could have produced thousands of loaves of bread every week.

Some of the builders were permanent employees of the pharaoh. Others were conscripted for a limited time from local villages. Some may have been women: Although no depictions of women builders have been found, some female skeletons show wear that suggests they labored with heavy stone for long periods of time.

Graffiti indicates that at least some of these workers took pride in their work, calling their teams "Friends of Khufu," "Drunkards of Menkaure," and so on—names indicating allegiances to pharaohs.

An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 workers built the Pyramids at Giza over 80 years. Much of the work probably happened while the River Nile was flooded.

Huge limestone blocks could be floated from quarries right to the base of the Pyramids. The stones would likely then be polished by hand and pushed up ramps to their intended positions.

It took more than manual labor, though. Architects achieved an accurate pyramid shape by running ropes from the outer corners up to the planned summit, to make sure the stones were positioned correctly. And priests-astronomers helped choose the pyramids' sites and orientations, so that they would be on the appropriate axis in relation to sacred constellations.

From stone pusher to priest, every worker would likely have recognized his or her role in continuing the life-and-death cycle of the pharaohs, and thereby in perpetuating the glory of Egypt.